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Damsel Nymph
The Role of Kālidāsa in the Development of Indian Literature
Kālidāsa, the poet laureate, the spirit of ancient Indian culture, the greatest personage of memory and the greatest heir of fame-is the brightest luminary in the firmament of Indian poetry. Superb characterization, judicious selection of theme, neat, harmonization of events, keen observation of human nature, perfect delineation of love, alluring treatment of Nature, sweet and lucid diction of words, chaste style, simple, melodious and perspicuous language, unartificial use of figures of speech, and high ideals of Indian culture- have earned for him an exalted place in the galaxy of the world poets. His poetry is for all times and for all climes beyond the limit of the individual, time and space revealing the universal truth for common goodwill. He knows the art of communication and has supreme power to provide peace and pleasure, solace and satisfaction to all those who seek for these. He may be compared to a shadowy banyan tree, which affords relief, and repose to the weary heat- tortured wayfarers. He represents the full life of a man in the world by the means of his poetry. He moulds the life of the people, guides them to the sacred ideals, pointing out the values of the life in their correct proportion and perspective. His ideals are high and faultless. He realizes the dignity and worth of human life. He impresses these ideals on our minds by the magic of his poetry, richness of imagination, profound knowledge of nature, delicate description of the tenderest emotions of human heart. In fact, he has achieved brilliant success in his attempt.
He condemns evil and forecasts ruin to the traveler walking on this path. His wisdom lies in the harmonious pursuit of different aims of life and development of an integral personality. He unfolds his characters in a natural but dignified way as a flower unfolds its petals in the rain and sunshine. He presents humanity along with nature as forming an integral and valuable part of this world of beauty and happiness. So, his persuasive manner leaves an indelible stamp of his message and ideal on our minds, which lead us to success in every sphere of life. Therefore, our poet stands unique in the whole range of world literature and has earned the richest deserving tributes and eulogies in glorious term for his literary flourishes from the eastern and the western countries.
Kālidāsa's precious heritage to the Indian Literature consists of two lyrics, two epics, and three dramas and he is supreme in these creations. ‘Rtusamhāra', the earliest picture on seasons, is the first literary flourish of his budding genius. It signs the magnificent glory of all six Indian seasons collectively. The ‘Mālvikāgnimitra' is a light comedy, with masterly skill. The dramatist interweaves a beautiful love-story round a simple historical fact and enriches and enlivens it by giving a romantic touch. The ‘Meghadūt' is the living picture of natural beauty, presenting a love romance of newly married couple on the dreamland of fancy. The ancient legend of Purūravas and Urvaśi has obtained a beautiful shape in the form of the ‘Vikramorvaśīya'. It is the first attempt of blending both human and super human events. The ‘Kumarsambhava' unfolds the beauties of human love by elevating it to the divine plane. The ‘Abhijañānaśākuntala' is the combination of earth and heaven. It contains the history of a development, the development of flower into fruit, of matter into spirit, of earth into heaven. It is the perfection of Kālidāsa's lofty ideals and it is the young year's blossom, which ripens into the mellow fruit of the autumnal maturity. The ‘Raghuvamśa' presents the ideals of perfect manhood and kingship. It signs the glory of spiritualized love and beauty of racial life.
Kālidāsa's genius has brought Indian poetry to the highest elegance and refinement and it is no wonder that Kāvya (poetry) has reached its climax in him. We do not find that type of poetry either in the earlier or in his contemporary poets, which could explain the finished excellence of his art. What impresses us most in his works is the freedom for immaturity, but this must have been the result of prolonged and incessant efforts, extending over a long period of time. Therefore, it is true in respect of our poet that the greatest genius is the most indebted personality. The great poets are always influenced by their predecessors and equally by their contemporary writers. A purely original work, in the true sense of the term, is a rarity. Thus, it is necessary to have access to other writings for a correct estimate of Kālidāsa. His outstanding genius justifies a great deal of critical and comparative study with his predecessors.
Of our poet's predecessors, we know little. His date is the most vexed riddle, unsolved even today, and so factually we cannot adjudge the real value of his poetry without having understood his predecessors and contemporary poets. Therefore, a critical and comparative observation is necessary to give due cognizance to the multi sided aspects in order to ascertain his true position in Indian Literature.
Though Kālidāsa appears as original in his creations yet after a critical and comparative study, we come to the conclusion that he is not as much original as he is believed to be. As regards the themes, ideas and expressions, he bears much affinity with other poets. We come across his verbatim resemblance too, with the writings of his earlier and contemporary poets. He freely draws upon others, but after purification and modifications he presents the ore in the most polished and refined colour, which becomes his own. The poet himself expresses his great gratitude to Vālmīki in his ‘Raghuvamśa', when he says that he is merely passing a thread through pearls through which holes has already made by Vālmīki. He is very much indebted to Vyāsa in deriving the theme, plots, characters, ideas and expressions. He is indebted to Bhāsa in constructing the frame of his dramas. As far as evidence of social and moral laws is concerned, he follows the Arthaśāstra of Kautalya and Smrtis of Manu and Yājñvalkya etc. Regarding theme and some expressions, he bears great resemblance with the Purāņas and Kathāsaritsāgara, though these works, in their present form, are definitely posterior to his writings.
Date of Kālidāsa
It is a matter of great regret that there are no reliable records with us which may through light on the biography of this great poet. Though the problem of his date has been a matter of discussion among the scholars, for a pretty long time, it still remains unsolved and is open to the question. His personal history is shrouded in the mist of obscurity. Therefore, in the absence of authentic source, it is not possible to access the gradual development of his genius from adolescence to perfection. He mentions little about himself, though he has left for us a vast treasure of his works. Now we are left with stray anecdotes besides the external and internal evidences. Varied and fanciful legends are current about him which being controvertible carries no historical value.
Scholars have different views on the problem of his date. There is no consensus on a particular date. According to these discussions, Kālidāsa's date falls between 800 B.C. and 600 A.D.
1. 800 B.C.- Mr. Hippolyte Fauche places Kālidāsa in the 8th century B.C., on assumption that he was contemporary of Agnivarna, the last king of Raghu dynasty.
2. 200 B.C.- According to Dr. C. Kunhan Raja, on the basis of Bharatvākya of the ‘Malvikagnimitra' Kālidāsa' was the contemporary of king Agnimitra of Sunga dynasty and flourished in the 2nd century B.C.
3. 100 B.C.- Ancient Indian tradition is mostly in favour of this date. Most of the scholars including Baladev Upaddhyaya, William Jones, Peterson, M.R. Kale, and R.N. Apte accept this date. The scholars favour this date on the assumption that Kālidāsa was the court poet of king Vikramāditya of Ujjainī who lived in 100 B.C. Scholars relate Kālidāsa to king Vikramāditya of Ujjainī who defeated the Śakas in 57 B.C. It is said that he established an era called Vikrama Samvatsara in commemoration of this great event. He was a generous ruler, a learned scholar, and lover of various arts. Kālidāsa was his contemporary, adorned his court, and was patronized by him.
4. 200 A.D.- Prof. Lassen and Weber place Kālidāsa in the 2nd century A.D.
5. 400 A.D.- This date is propounded by Dr. A.B. Keith. According to him, Kālidāsa flourished during the reign of king Candragupta 2nd (380-413) of Ujjainī who crushed Hūnas and as a result, assumed the title ‘Vikramāditya'. The poet expresses in his works his deep sense of gratitude for his Gupta patrons. Smith and MacDonnell support Dr. Keith. On the basis of astronomical calculations Jacobi places Kālidāsa after 3rd century A.D. Dr. Bűhler is of opinion that he should placed before 472 A.D. Sircar admits that the earliest historical Vikramāditya is Candragupta 2nd of imperil Gupta dynasty who defeated Śakas, conquered western India and made Ujjainī, as the capital of his empire. This theory founded by Dr. Keith has received support from Winternitz, Konow, Liebich, Bloch and many other scholars.
6. Dr. Ferguson who is well known by his ‘Korur theory' states that the founder of Vikrama era was Harsa Vikramāditya who inflicted a crushing defeat on the Śakas in 544 A.D. in the battle of Korur. In commemoration of this great victory, he not only started an era after his name, but also antedated it by 600 years in order to invest it with sanctity.
The Aihole Inscription of Pulakeśin 2 (634 A.D.) mentions the poet by name along with Bhārvi. However, a factor common to these theories reveals the fact that Kālidāsa was the court poet of king Vikramāditya who is associated with the era, known as Vikrama. In this context, two theories have emerged regarding the date of Kālidāsa and these need further investigation.
1. 100 B.C.- The era, bearing the name of Vikramāditya, is current in India from 57 B.C. But history has failed to prove any clue to prove the existence of such a king at Ujjainī in the 1st century B.C. The efforts of scholars to establish king Vikramāditya in the first century B.C. and to connect Kālidāsa with that king have so far remained conjectural. In the Purānic dynasties, there is no mention of king Vikrama.
2. 400 A.D.- There is no clear reference to Gupta kings in Kālidāsa's works, and no evidence to associate Candragupta 2nd with Kālidāsa is forthcoming except that he assumed the title ‘Vikramāditya', still the theory deserves careful consideration. Kālidāsa's works presents a picture of Indian sub-continent, enjoying peace and prosperity for a pretty long period during which arts and crafts flourished and culture attained its heights. This period reflects a calm and quit state of country in which the menace of foreign invasion was for the time gone. We get a glimpse in his works, of reputation he enjoyed in the court of his master. The Gupta age is described as the Golden Age in Indian History. It is characterized by high patronage to learning and revival of Brahmanical culture. The life of luxury, pursuit of art and literature, and the social and economical prosperity of the people mark the golden age of the Guptas. Dr. A.S. Altekar has proved that Vikrama era as recorded in the Gupta inscriptions was known as ‘Krta' in the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. and as Mālva in the 5th to 8th centuries A.D. it was only in the 9th century A.D. that the era came to be described as the ‘Vikrama' in the inscription. In the whole range of Gupta period, the reign of Candragupta 2nd is marked by such traits. Therefore, a number of scholars have placed Kālidāsa in the reign of Candragupta 2nd.
Furthermore, we see the impact of Aśvaghosa on Kālidāsa. Aśvaghosa, the Buddhist poet, has prepared the ground for Kālidāsa by his compositions in the field of poetry and drama. Kālidāsa took clue from this great poet and presented his own poetry and drama in polished and refined manner. The date of Aśvaghosa is definite. He enjoyed the patronage of Kusāna king Kaniska who ruled in 78 A.D. Therefore, Kālidāsa flourished after Aśvaghosa.
Thus, according to Dr. Keith, Kālidāsa produced his literary venture near about 400 A.D.under Guptas patronage and could be placed in the reign of Candragupta 2nd.
Chronology of Kālidāsa's Works:
In his catalogue, Dr. Aufrecht assigns 34 works of Kālidāsa. But in fact only seven works are ascribed to him: two lyrics, two epics and three dramas. It is difficult to settle chronology among these works. Scholars have differed on this point. Cappeler places the ‘Mālvikāgnimitra' as the last play of the poet, while Huth assigns the first place to the ‘Vikramorvaśīya'.
Hillebrandt holds that Urvaśī is the perfect creation of Kālidāsa from the artistic point of view but from the point of view of poetry and delineation of human emotions, the Śakuntalā is for the most excellent. Regarding dramatic technique, the Urvaśī is the most artistic creation so far as the poet's faculty of creation is concerned. In all sphere of art, may be music, poetry or drama, Kālidāsa has reached the highest point. Chandra Bali Pandey has divided his works on the basis of his geographical landmarks. The ‘Rtusamhāra' and the ‘Mālvikāgnimitra' belong to the Vindhya region, the ‘Vikramorvaśīya' the ‘Kumārsambhava' and the ‘Abhijañānaśākuntala' to the Himālayas, the ‘Meghadūta' comes in between. The ‘Raghuvamśa' is not confined to a particular place in the country, but it is meant for the entire country nay for the all-human race. It contains ideals for entire humanity and is invested with an impressive poetical garb. The ‘Rtusamhāra' is Kālidāsa's first literary art, which smacks of North Indian atmosphere. In epics and lyrics, come the ‘Kumārsambhava', the ‘Meghadūta', and the ‘Raghuvamśa' in successive order. The ‘Abhijañānaśākuntala' is the best of the creation. In their chronological order his works stand as under: -
The ‘Rtusamhāra'- The ‘Mālvikāgnimitra'- The ‘Kumārsambhava'- The ‘Vikramorvaśīya' – The ‘Meghadūta' – The ‘Raghuvamśa' – The ‘Abhijañānaśākuntala'.
From the stages of development in his poetical art, achievement of human ideals, treatment of characters and delineation of emotive love, we may propose a chronological account of Kālidāsa's works. As far as human emotions are concerned, he depicts both earthly and heavenly aspects of love affair. He aims at the harmonious merging of two extreme aspects. He elevates love from its physical to the moral plane. The fickle earthly love is lifted to heavenly sphere.
Earthly love, based on physical beauty and full of lust and passion, does not lead to ever- lasting union of the couple. Penance comes in as a matter of course and so is the means of making love fruitful. Austerity becomes the media whereby the physical love is transformed into the spiritual one. Malice and gross passions are burnt up yielding place to an eternal love, which lasts ever through the ages.
The ‘Rtusamhāra' is the first product of the young poet. It is a lyric, which delineates six seasons. It abounds in fervent and passionate addresses to the beloved by a young romantic lover. The lovers are earthly beings who are newly wedded and prone to erotic influences. They are enjoying the pleasure of hymeneal life and exceedingly engrossed in amorous sports, regardless of other aims of life. The poem lacks in the serenity of thought and sublimity of emotion. Through the depiction of six seasons the poet reveals his earnest love for nature. The poem portrays earthly love in union with no characteristics marks of ethos or moral tone. It is a faithful representation of art for art's sake and of nature for nature's sake.
The ‘Mālvikāgnimitra' is the second creation of the poet's genius. Most of the characters are historical. The play depicts sensual love, with all its frailties, weaknesses, and selfishness. Based on physical beauty and without any depth, it has its nucleus in the characterization of the king Agnimitra and Mālvika, the princess of noble lineage. Their love is earthly. It is confined to the harem. The lovers are attracted to each other by personal charms. There is no problem of purification. The ultimate aim of the lovers is their union. There is no other motive. The play ends only with their union and nothing more.
The ‘Meghadūta' is the third literary venture of the poet. The hero and the heroine are the semi-divine beings. The newly wedded pair is in their bloom of youth. The hero is cursed for the negligence of his duty to stay away from his beloved for about a year. The poem sings of passionate love in separation. Bereavement purifies the hearts of the lovers and makes them worthy of union again. The poem ends with the message of longing and hope. It ends before their reunion and prior to the birth of their son.
The ‘Vikramorvaśīya' is Kālidāsa's first attempt in dramatic art wherein he combines earth and heaven. The play deals with love between a terrestrial king and celestial damsel. The play therefore is a blending of human and superhuman elements. Urvaśī is inaccessible to Purūravas. One of the two lovers, one is on the earth; the other in the heaven, both cannot live ever together. However, the dramatist devises a plane for accomplishment of their union. He invents the episode of Bharta's curse and its mitigation through the blessing of Indra and binds the lovers in happy wedlock to live together on the plane of the earth. Here Kālidāsa combines heaven with earth. The terrestrial and the celestial beings can associate themselves freely and enjoy sensual pleasures of their own sweet will.
The fifth in the serial order the ‘Kumārsambhava'. Herein the poet unfolds the charms of human love by elevating it to the divine plane. The divine beings who are caught in the meshes of love are Lord Śiva and Lady Umā, the parents of the universe. At first physical glamour of Umā fails to win the heart of Śiva, so much so that Lord Śiva burns the cupid into ashes. It is by severe austerity that she gains the favour of her lord. The dross of passion disappears. Their union bears the fruit in the birth of Kumāra for the protection of the universe from Tārka. Thus the purpose of their union is achieved. In this work, Kālidāsa has depicted divine love, it's enjoy and hardship that has a purpose behind.
The ‘Abhijañānaśākuntala', a drama in seven acts, is marked by the remarkable achievement of our poet. The drama draws a portrait of passionate love between king Dusyanta and Śakuntalā, the daughter of Menkā, a celestial nymph. The hero and the heroine are the combination of the mortal and the divine elements. The play opens with the birth of love at the first sight in the hearts of two lovers. Śakuntalā is passionately in love than Dusyanta and it leads to her fall. Dusyanta, openly in the court, rejects her. She weeps and laments. Then comes the ordeal of suffering and sacrifice through which she passes boldly and successfully. Kālidāsa has ennobled love by elevating the same from the physical to the spiritual.
The ultimate result of their union is the birth of their matchless son Sarvadamana, both brave and beautiful. The play presents two sets of union, one at the very first sight, the other after separation. One occurs in the penance grove of Saga Kanva, the other in the aerial Āśrama of saga Kaśyapa. The first union is marked by passion, indiscipline, negligence of duty and unwanted secrecy. The second is marked by self-imposed penance and austerity. Here in the play Kālidāsa presents very successfully a harmonious blending between earthly and heavenly elements. The one is earthly and the other is celestial. The poet has achieved the goal of ideal love by depicting it through the pinnacle of his poetic art.
The ‘Raghuvamśa' is the final creation of the poet. It is the outcome of his matured genius. Herein he describes the solar dynasty of king dilipa and its achievements. The characters, drawn are indeed and historical personage, pure and blameless.
About the Author
Parmeshwar Gangawat is lecturer in English at Indira Gandhi P.G. College, Dausa, State- Rajasthan and he is teaching English language & literature to undergraduate and postgraduate students from past four years. He did his M.A. (English) from University of Rajasthan in year 2006 and M.Phil (ELT) from Periyar University in 2008. Besides, he did his M.A. (Linguistics) from DDE Anna Malai University and M.A. (Education) from IASE University. Now he is a research scholar at Department of English, University of Rajasthan and pursuing his Ph.D. His area of specialization is Applied Linguistics.(gangawat_pankaj@yahoo.com)
Fly Tying with Rich Lobrovich: "The Amnesia Damsel Nymph"